Bulan: April 2012

Struktur Data 16

Penyajian: Ada beberapa cara untuk menyajikan suatu tumpukan yaitu kumpulan data. Kita bisa menggunakan larik untuk menyajikan tumpukan tersebut. Larik adalah tipe data terstruktur. Walau pun begitu, kita bisa segera mengetahui bahwa penyajian tumpukan menggunakan larik adalah kurang tepat. Alasannya karena banyaknya elemen dalam larik sudah tertentu (statis), sedangkan dalam tumpukan sangat dinamis.

Larik bisa kita gunakan untuk

Menyajikan suatu tumpukan dengan anggapan bahwa banyaknya elemen maksimum dari tumpukan tersebut tidak akan melebihi batas maksimum banyaknya elemen dalam larik.

Pada suatu saat ukuran tumpukan akan sama dengan ukuran larik. Kalau kita teruskan menambah data lagi, akan terjadi overflow. Oleh karena itu perlu data tambahan untuk mencatat posisi ujung tumpukan. Dengan kebutuhan seperti ini, kita bisa menyajikan …

Tumpukan menggunakan

Tipe data terstruktur seperti tipe rekaman (record) yang terdiri atas dua medan yaitu: 1) Medan pertama bertipe larik untuk menyimpan elemen tumpukan; 2) Medan kedua bertipe integer untuk mencatat posisi ujung tumpukan. Dengan anggapan ini, kita bisa mendeklarasikan tumpukan sebagai mana tertera pada file.

Dengan deklarasi tersebut

Kita menganggap bahwa elemen tumpukan T, yang tersimpan dalam larik T.Isi adalah bertipe integer dan banyaknya elemen tumpukan maksimum adalah sebesar MaxElemen yang dalam hal ini 255 elemen.

Sesungguhnya elemen tumpukan tidak harus berupa integer, tetapi bisa berupa data dengan tipe yang lain, misalnya real atau char. Tipe data dari medan Atas harus bilangan bulat antara 0 sampai MaxElemen.

Kamko 12

FRAUD

•The other area of ilegal information processing is a premeditated or conscious effort to defraud the system.
•Any ilegal entry into a computer system for the purpose of personal gain is considered fraud.
•Over 50% of all computer frauds are internal; that is, they are committed by employee.
The privacy of personal information
•Prinsip: 1) People should be made aware that data are being collected about them and made aware of how these data are to be used.
•Prinsip: 2) A person should be permitted to inspect his or her personal data and information.
•Prinsip: 3) A person should be permitted to supplement of clarify personal data and information.
•Prinsip: 4) data and information found erroneous or irrelevant must be removed.
•Prinsip: 5) disclosure of personal information should be limited to those with a need to know.
•Prinsip: 6) A log should be maintained of all people inspecting any individual’s personal information.
•Prinsip: 7) Adequate safeguards must be in place to ensure the security of personal data and information [contoh: locked doors, passwords].

Kamko 11

Computer and the law

•Sistem informasi tanpa hukum à computer crime.
•Sophisticated computer crime can be extremely complex and may be well beyond the understanding of post prosecutors, judges, and jurors.
•Legislation must be enacted and prosecution issues resolved before the criminal justice system can begin to cope with computer crime.
Illegal information processing
•The two main causes of illegal information processing are negligence and fraud. Negligence cause some one outside the organization to be unnecessarily inconvenienced, and it is usually the result of poor input /output control.
•This is a clear case of a misinterpretation of computer maxim – GIGO.
GIGO case
•The company blamed the incident on a mistake by the computer. The court stated that the people enter data and interpret output and that the people affected should be treated differently from punched cards.
•Trust in the infallibility of a computer does not constitute a defense in a court of law. This incident points out the importance of careful system design and exhaustive testing.

Kamko 10

The National Data Base

Basis data nasional à e-ktp, inafis

•National data base à a central repository for all personal data.
•An individual would be assigned a unique identification number at  birth. Di USA, ID number would replace the social security number, driver’s license number, student identification number, etc.
•A national data base would consolidate the personal data now stored on ten of thousands of manual and computer-based files.
National data base à advantages
•It could provide the capability of monitoring the activities of criminal suspects; of virtually eliminating welfare fraud; of quickly identifying illegal aliens; of making an individual’s medical history available at any hospital in the country; of taking the 10-year census almost automatically; etc.

Kamko 9

Senin 23 April 2012

The Effect of Automation on Jobs

 

Concern about the effects of automation began 200 years ago with Industrial Revolution, and the public is still apprehensive. To many people, computers mean automation, and automation means loss of jobs. Just as the Industrial Revolution created hundreds of new job opportunities, so will the “Information Revolution”.

There is no doubt that the emergence of computer technology has resulted in the elimination of jobs involving routine, monotonous, and sometimes hazardous tasks. However, the loss of these jobs has been offset by the creation of more challenging ones. Many people whose jobs have been eliminated have been displaced to jobs carrying greater responsibilities and offering more opportunities. It is common for book-keepers to become systems analysts, for draft-persons to advance to computer-aided design, and for secretaries to become specialists in myriad of computer applications from word processing to data management. This pattern is repeated thousands of times each month.

Automation will continue to eliminate and create jobs. Historically, any advancement in technology has increased overall productivity in certain areas, thereby cutting the number of workers needed. But this also produces a wave of new jobs in the wake of cutbacks in traditional areas. With the cost of labor increasing and the cost of computers decreasing, the trend toward the automation of routine activities probably will continue. However, to realize a smooth transition to an aoutmated environment, industry and government must recognize that they have a social responsibility to retrain those who will be displaced by the loss of their jobs.

Kamko 8

The advantages of an expanded use of

•EFT are note-worthy. EFT would eliminate the cumbersome administrative work associated with handling money and checks.
•It alse would eliminate the need to carry money, eliminate rubber checks and conterfeit money, and minimize the possibility of error.
•It would provide a detailed record of all transactions.
EFT would also eliminate
•The expense of making money. The cost of manufacturing a penny now exceeds the value of the coin!
•The disadvantages are equally note-worthy. The critical issue is EFT’s potential for the misuse of personal information.
•EFT generates a chronological record of all purchases.
In effect, this type of system
•Permits every thing about an individual to be monotired, from life style to location. Opponents of EFT are also concerned about its vulnerability to crime.
•Although there is a trend toward more electronic funds transfer, some experts feel that EFT is about to reach its peak of acceptance. Others think that total EFT is inevitable by the turn of the century.

Kamko 7

•But the threat of computer crime may be even greater from managers and consultants because they are in the best position to commit it successfully. They know how the systems operate, and they know the passwords needed to gain access to the systems.
•The cashless society???
The cashless society
•Pertumbuhan ATM à EFT (electronic funds transfer), sangat transparan ke publik. Debat: is this a reasonable and prudent manner in which to handle financial transactions?
•The scope of EFT may be expandedd because the buyer will be able to use a universal smart card (“smart” because of the tiny embedded microprocessor) and …
•… And perhaps a password to buy everything from candy bars to automobiles. Upon purchasing an item, the buyer would give the card, called a debit card, to the seller.
•The seller would use the purchaser’s card to log the sale on a point-of-sale (POS) terminal linked to a network of banking computers. The amount of the sale would then be transferred from the buyer’s account to the seller’s account.

Kamko 6

•Recognizing the potential impact of computer crime, the legal system, and industry are trying to speed up precautionary measures.
•There are a growing concern that the media is glorifying the illegal entry and use of computer system by overzealous hackers.
•These “electronic vandals” have tapped into everything from local credit agencies to top-secret defense systems.
•The evidence of unlawful entry, perhaps a revised record or access during nonoperating hours, is called a footprint. Some malicious hackers leave much more than a footprint – they infect the computer system with a virus.
•A virus is a program that literally “infects” other programs and data bases. Viral programs are written with malicious intent and are loaded to the computer system of ansuspecting victim.
•The motives of those who would infect a systems with a virus run from electronic vandalism to revenge to terrorism. There is no monetary reward, only the “satisfaction” of knowing that their efforts have been very costly to individual, companies, or governments.
•A few hackers and computer professionals have chosen computer crime as a profession.

Kamko 5

A disgruntled employee might

•Plant a logic bomb to be “exploded” on the first Friday the thirteenth after his or her record is deleted from the personnel data base.
•Crimes that involve the manipulation of computer systems and their data. Embezzlement and fraud fall into this category.
Computer crime
•Tipe: mulai dari penggunaan sandi tak legal (unauthorized password) oleh mahasiswa sampai a billion-dollar insurance fraud.
•Diestimasi total uang hilang akibat kriminal komputer lebih besar dari pada total semua perampokan.
•In fact, no one really knows the extent of computer crime because …
•Much of it is either undetected or unreported (most often the latter). In those cases involving banks, officers may elect to write off the loss rather than announce the crime and risk losing the goodwill of their customers.
•Computer crime requires the cooperation of an experienced computer specialist. A common street thug does not have the knowledge or the opportunity to be successful at computer crime.